Chapter 3

Phrases

3.1    Introduction

The phrase is an intermediate level of organisation between a word and the clause. Phrases can be characterised partly by their external function and partly by their internal form. Table 3.1 gives an overview of typical external functions for the phrases discussed in this chapter.

    By “form” is meant the way the structure of the phrase is made up of other, smaller elements. Each phrase is made up of a head word and any dependent(s). The head word may be the only element of the phrase. A phrase is named after the word class of the head word.

3.2    Noun phrase (NP)

This section considers the internal form and external functions of noun phrases.

3.2.1    NP heads and ellipsis

A constituent is structurally complete when not reduced by ellipsis. Ellipsis is the ommission of one or more elements that can be recovered or understood from the linguistic or situational context. All structurally complete noun phrases have a head word. Section 2.3 gives the list of tags for elements that can head noun phrases, including proper nouns and pronouns.

    As an example of noun phrase head ellipsis, consider (3.1), with its predicative noun phrase (NP-PRD) lacking a head noun. In a context discussing siblings, Alan is understood to be the youngest sibling.

(3.1)

While there is no additional marking to indicate the noun ellipsis in the annotation of (3.1), the overall structure gives this information, since there is a noun phrase projection that does not contain a head word.

3.2.2    NP dependents

A structurally complete noun phrase can consist of one head word (e.g. the pronoun we or the noun pizza), or it can consist of a head word with a number of dependents. Dependents modify the head word by adding information.

    Possible dependents include: determiners (e.g. the pizza), adjective phrases (e.g. healthy pizza), nominal modifiers (nouns which modify other nouns, e.g. vegetable pizza), and relative clauses (e.g. pizza that I made). It is possible to have multiple dependents. For example, (3.2) is a noun phrase containing determiner the, adjective phrase healthy, nominal modifier vegetable, head noun pizza, and relative clause that I made.

(3.2)

    With both nouns (e.g. vegetable) and adjective phrases (e.g. healthy) able to act as modifiers in a noun phrase, other criteria is needed to distinguish nouns functioning as nominal modifiers from single word adjective phrases. For example, adjectives do not take number marking, while vegetable can be made plural (vegetables).

    A dependent in the NP can also be categorised according to its position in the NP:

• Determiners (D), quantifiers (Q), genitive noun phrases (NP-GEN), numerals (NUM), adjective phrases (ADJP), nominal modifiers (N or NS), and some adverb phrases (ADVP), occur before the NP head (e.g., the young printer's apprentice, the computer skills course, every day, about the first week in June).

(3.3)

(3.4)

(3.5)

(3.6)

• Single word non-finite clauses (IP-PPL) can occur before the NP head (e.g. a murmuring voice, validated data).

(3.7)

(3.8)

• There are restrictions on the order of multiple pre-head constituents. For example, determiners (D) occur before adjective phrases (ADJP), e.g. some testable factual basis.

(3.9)

• Post-head modifiers in an NP include preposition phrases (PP; e.g. examples of good practise), relative clauses (IP-REL; e.g. pizza that I made), infinitive relative clauses (IP-INF-REL; e.g., more stuff to put in), non-finite clauses (IP-PPL; e.g. a business operator handling personal information), and empty operator clauses (IP-EOP; e.g. a natural resource , free for the taking).

(3.10)

(3.11)

(3.12)

(3.13)

• Some nouns select a post-head dependent that can be a single CP-THT clause (e.g., the fact that one can eliminate fear), or a single IP-INF clause (e.g., My wish to meet Samuel)

(3.14)

(3.15)

• Some adjective phrases (often with their own dependents) can occur as post-head modifiers (e.g. something unusual, capital so vital for growth).

(3.16)

(3.17)

• Some adverb phrases can occur as post-head modifiers (e.g., everything else).

(3.18)

3.2.3    Noun phrase internal layer

When there is need for structure internal to the noun phrase annotation, NLYR is used.

This occurs when either:

(i)

a nominal modifier is itself modified, or

(ii)

there is coordination within the noun phrase.

Section 3.2.4 illustrates (ii). Example (3.19) is a case of (i), with its adjective secondary a modifier of nominal modifier school.

(3.19)

Another example of (i) is (3.20) where a noun modifier occurs before an adjective phrase modifier:

(3.20)

Another example of (i) is (3.21) which has multiple noun modifiers that have nouns under NLYR layers:

(3.21)

Yet another example of (i) is (3.22), with its preposition phrase modifier in aid of the nominal modifier grant.

(3.22)

This use of NLYR can be recursive:

(3.23)

(3.24)

Further scenarios for (i) are (3.25) and (3.26). These illustrate how an NLYR layer can be used to isolate noun phrase content for modification by a quantifier.

(3.25)

(3.26)

Another example of NLYR use:

(3.27)

(3.28)

(3.29)

    A layer for a distinct noun phrase marked -NIM can also occur within a noun phrase as a nominal modifier:

(3.30)

3.2.4    NP conjunction

When the content of a noun phrase involves conjunction, all conjuncts are NLYR layers. Moreover, all conjuncts, except the first, occur directly under a CONJP projection. These CONJP projections are sisters to the first conjunct, all of which is placed under an NLYR layer.

Example (3.31) shows how there are CONJP layers for conjuncts subsequent to the first irrespective of the presence of an overt CONJ head, and how conjuncts can themselves contain conjuncts to give instances of layered conjunction.

(3.31)

    If there is a CONJ that starts the sequence of conjunctions, then this initial CONJ is placed at the NLYR layer that contains the conjuncts, as illustrated in (3.32).

(3.32)

Example (3.32) also shows how the modifier of a head noun can involve noun phrase coordination internally. Note how there is an NLYR layer to introduce the modifier that immediately contains as its only daughter the NLYR layer that contains the conjuncts.

    It is also possible for a complex head involving coordination to itself be modified, as (3.33) demonstrates.

(3.33)

3.2.5    PRN inside noun phrases

(3.34)

(3.35)

3.2.6    NP functions

The notion of function helps to establish how a given noun phrase acts as a single unit (constituent). The examples of (3.36)–(3.40) show that the same noun phrase (that way) is able to take on various different functions depending on its contribution to the containing clause.

(3.36)

(3.37)

(3.38)

(3.39)

(3.40)

    In (3.39), that way has a selected adverbial function, and, in (3.40), that way has an unselected adverbial function. A noun phrase can also take an adverbial function from occurring as complement of a preposition (such as of, to, with, at, by, etc.) (see section 3.5.4).

    An NP might also occur in the genitive construction, seen in section 2.3.5, with the tag of Table 3.5.

    An NP might be a vocative with the tag of Table 3.6, as in (3.41).

A vocative noun phrase is a noun phrase which directly addresses someone, e.g., Summers in (3.41) and Rebecca in (3.42).

(3.41)

(3.42)

See section 4.2.3 for discussion on NP-VOC in imperative sentences.

    Finally, an NP might be a reflexive with the tag of Table 3.7, as in (3.43).

(3.43)

3.3    Adjective phrase (ADJP)

This section considers the form and function of adjective phrases.

3.3.1    ADJP heads

The head of an ADJP is an adjective. The head adjective can be:

• plain (ADJ; e.g. big),
• comparative (ADJR; e.g. bigger), or
• superlative (ADJS; e.g. biggest).

3.3.2    ADJP dependents

Instances of ADJP can have various dependents which modify the head, such as adverb phrases (ADVP), preposition phrases (PP), or clauses.

• Adverbs modify the head to provide information about degree and commonly occur before the head (e.g. so important), although a few occur after (e.g. easy enough).

(3.44)

(3.45)

• Some adverbs as premodifiers, especially very and really, can be repeated (e.g. very very rude).

(3.46)

• An NP can also act as a modifier in an ADJP (e.g. a bit more, aged sixty five years). Such an NP takes no function marking itself.

(3.47)

(3.48)

• Dependents which typically occur after the head of an ADJP are PP (e.g. free from difficulty) and clauses (e.g. able to do that, unaware that certain information actually exists).

(3.49)

(3.50)

(3.51)

• PP can also act as premodifiers in an ADJP (e.g. for the most part unproductive).

(3.52)

3.3.3    ADJP conjunction

When the content of an adjective phrase involves conjunction, all conjuncts, except the first, receive a CONJP projection. This gives structure parallel to the conjoined NP structure of section 3.2.4, but with CONJP projections adjoined to the first conjunct under an AJLYR layer. CONJP layers exist irrespective of the presence of an overt CONJ head, as in (3.53).

(3.53)

(3.54)

(3.55)

    Note that it is possible for a conjunct under AJLYR to be a PP, as in (3.56).

(3.56)

3.3.4    ADJP functions

ADJP can act as modifiers of a noun phrase head. In doing so, they are said to have attributive function. With the annotation, an attributive ADJP occurs without a tag extension, as in (3.57) and (3.58), since placement under NP unambiguously captures the attributive function.

(3.57)

(3.58)

    In a clause, an ADJP will typically have a predicative function, marked with the tag extension -PRD(2) (see section 4.3.3), and with a predicate position after verbs that include BE, APPEAR, SEEM, SOUND, MAKE (e.g. The cookbook is practical, This description sounds familiar, It makes me uneasy).

(3.59)

(3.60)

(3.61)

3.4    Adverb phrase (ADVP)

This section considers the form and function of adverb phrases.

3.4.1    ADVP heads

The head of an ADVP can be:

• a plain adverb (ADV; e.g. far),
• a comparative adverb (ADVR; e.g. farther),
• a superlative adverb (ADVS; e.g. farthest),
• a WH-adverb that is the relative adverb of a relative clause (RADV; e.g. how, when, where, whereby),
• a WH-adverb (WADV; e.g. how, when, where, why), or
• an adverbial particle (RP; e.g. up).

3.4.2    ADVP dependents

The structure of an ADVP is the same as that of an ADJP.

3.4.3    ADVP conjunction

Conjunction with an ADVP is the same as with an ADJP. With the annotation, CONJP projections are adjoined to the first CONJP-less conjunct under an AVLYR layer.

(3.62)

    Note that it is possible for a conjunct under AVLYR to be a PP, as in (3.63).

(3.63)

3.4.4    ADVP functions

Adverb phrases without function marking are able to modify adjectives (e.g. totally disgusting), adverbs (e.g. Quite often) and noun phrases (e.g. nearly a decade).

(3.64)

(3.65)

(3.66)

    Adverb phrases function marked -NIM can modify prepositions (e.g. far up the valley, purely and simply for the money), verbs (e.g. strongly supported) and clauses (e.g. of_course you can).

(3.67)

(3.68)

(3.69)

(3.70)

    Instances of ADVP can function in the clause as selected adverbials marked -CLR. For example, the adverb phrase in (3.71) has selected direction function. The direction function is not explicitly marked and must be inferred from the verb GO with verb code [Ip].

(3.71)

The adverb phrase in (3.72) has selected predicative function. The predicative function is not explicitly marked and must be inferred from the verb BE with verb code [Ip].

(3.72)

    Exceptionally, the adverb phrase in (3.73) has direct object (-OB1) function and so is placed as the full content of an object function marked noun phrase.

(3.73)

3.5    Preposition phrase (PP)

This section considers the form and function of preposition phrases.

3.5.1    PP heads

A preposition phrase (PP) has a preposition word (P-ROLE) as its head and this is usually followed by a noun phrase (e.g. on the table). Some prepositions consist of more than one word and are called multi-word (or complex) prepositions. For example, adjacent_to, in_front_of.

3.5.2    PP dependents

The other phrase types of this chapter (NP, ADJP, and ADVP) can contain only the head word. A preposition phrase (PP) is different: There is normally a dependent. This happens because prepositions generally require a following noun phrase (NP) or clause (IP). When the dependent of a phrase is a necessary presence, the dependent is called a complement. For example, the PP out_of the box contains the preposition head word out_of and the NP complement the box, to give the structure of (3.74).

(3.74)

3.5.3    PP conjunction

Instances of PP are conjoined at the top level of their structure.

(3.75)

(3.76)

(3.77)

3.5.4    PP functions

In the clause, a PP typically acts as an adverbial. Either of the two possible adverbial markings discussed in section 4.3.4, -NIM or -CLR, can be used with PP, as examples (3.75) and (3.76) above illustrate. In addition, PP-OB2 is possible to make an indirect object, which gains the content of its role from being a verb selected element (see examples with codes [Dn.pr] in section 7.7.2, [Dpr.f] in section 7.7.4 and [Dpr.w] in section 7.7.6).