Chapter 3

Phrases

3.1    Introduction

The phrase is an intermediate level of organisation between a word and the clause. Phrases can be characterised partly by their external function and partly by their internal form. Table 3.25 gives an overview of typical external functions for the phrases discussed in this chapter.

    By “form” is meant the way the structure of the phrase is made up of other, smaller elements. Each phrase is made up of a HEAD word and any DEPENDENTs. The head word may be the only element of the phrase. A phrase is named after the word class of the head word.

3.2    Noun phrase (NP)

This section considers the internal form and external functions of noun phrases.

3.2.1    NP heads and ellipsis

A constituent is STRUCTURALLY COMPLETE when not reduced by ellipsis. ELLIPSIS is the ommission of one or more elements that can be recovered or understood from the linguistic or situational context. All structurally complete noun phrases have a head word. Section 2.2 gives the list of tags for elements that can head noun phrases, including proper nouns and pronouns.

    As an example of noun phrase head ellipsis, consider (3.1), with its predicative noun phrase (NP-PRD2) lacking a head noun. In a context discussing siblings, Alan is understood to be the youngest sibling.

(3.1)

(IP-MAT 
  (NP-SBJ (NPR Alan)) 
  (BEP;~Ln is) 
  (NP-PRD2 (D the) 
    (ADJP (ADJS youngest)))) 

While there is no additional marking to indicate the noun ellipsis in the annotation of (3.1), the overall structure gives this information, since there is a noun phrase projection that does not contain a head word.

3.2.2    NP dependents

A structurally complete noun phrase can consist of one head word (e.g. the pronoun we or the noun pizza), or it can consist of a head word with a number of dependents. Dependents modify the head word by adding information.

    Possible dependents include: determiners (e.g. the pizza), adjective phrases (e.g. healthy pizza), nominal modifiers (nouns which modify other nouns, e.g. vegetable pizza), and relative clauses (e.g. pizza that I made). It is possible to have multiple dependents. For example, (3.2) is a noun phrase containing determiner the, adjective phrase healthy, nominal modifier vegetable, head noun pizza, and relative clause that I made.

(3.2)

(NP-SBJ (D The) 
  (ADJP (ADJ healthy)) 
  (N vegetable) 
  (N pizza) 
  (IP-REL 
    (NP-OB1 (RPRO that)) 
    (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) 
    (VBD;~Tn made))) 

    With both nouns (e.g. vegetable) and adjective phrases (e.g. healthy) able to act as modifiers in a noun phrase, other criteria is needed to distinguish nouns functioning as nominal modifiers from single word adjective phrases. For example, adjectives do not take number marking, while vegetable can be made plural (vegetables).

    A dependent in the NP can also be categorised according to its position in the NP:

• Determiners (D), quantifiers (Q), genitive noun phrases (NP-GENV), numerals (NUM), adjective phrases (ADJP), nominal modifiers (N or NS), and some adverb phrases (ADVP), occur before the NP head (e.g., the young printer's apprentice, the computer skills course, every day, about the first week in June).

(3.3)

(NP-SBJ (D The) 
  (ADJP (ADJ young)) 
  (NP-GENV (N printer) (GENM <apos>s)) 
  (N apprentice)) 

(3.4)

(NP-SBJ (D the) (N computer) (NS skills) (N course)) 

(3.5)

(NP-SBJ (Q every) (N day)) 

(3.6)

(NP-FOC 
  (ADVP (ADV about)) 
  (D the) 
  (NUM first) 
  (N week) 
  (PP (P-ROLE in) 
    (NP (NPR June)))) 

• Single word non-finite clauses (IP-PPL) can occur before the NP head (e.g. a murmuring voice, validated data).

(3.7)

(NP (D a) 
  (IP-PPL (VAG;~I murmuring)) 
  (N voice)) 

(3.8)

(NP-OB1 
  (IP-PPL (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn validated)) 
  (N data)) 

• There are restrictions on the order of multiple pre-head constituents. For example, determiners (D) occur before adjective phrases (ADJP), e.g. some testable factual basis.

(3.9)

(NP (D some) 
  (ADJP (ADJ testable)) 
  (ADJP (ADJ factual)) 
  (N basis)) 

• Post-head modifiers in an NP include preposition phrases (PP; e.g. examples of good practise), relative clauses (IP-REL; e.g. pizza that I made), infinitive relative clauses (IP-INF-REL; e.g., more stuff to put in), non-finite clauses (IP-PPL; e.g. a business operator handling personal information), and empty operator clauses (IP-EOP; e.g. a natural resource , free for the taking).

(3.10)

(NP (NS examples) 
  (PP (P-ROLE of) 
    (NP 
      (ADJP (ADJ good)) 
      (N practice)))) 

(3.11)

(NP 
  (ADJP (ADJR more)) 
  (N stuff) 
  (IP-INF-REL (NP-OB1 *T*) (TO to) (VB;~Tn.p put) 
    (ADVP-CLR-DIR (RP in)))) 

(3.12)

(NP (D a) (N business) (N operator) 
  (IP-PPL (VAG;~Tn handling) 
    (NP-OB1 
      (ADJP (ADJ personal)) 
      (N information)))) 

(3.13)

(NP (D a) 
  (ADJP (ADJ natural)) 
  (N resource) 
  (PUNC ,) 
  (IP-EOP (NP-SBJ *T*) 
    (ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ free)) 
    (PP-NIM-CNT (P-ROLE for) 
      (NP (D the) (N taking))))) 

• Some nouns select a post-head dependent that can be a single CP-THT clause (e.g., the fact that one can eliminate fear), or a single IP-INF clause (e.g., My wish to meet Samuel)

(3.14)

(NP (D the) (N fact) 
  (CP-THT 
    (IP-SUB (C that) 
      (NP-SBJ (D;_nphd_ one)) 
      (MD;~cat_Vi can) 
      (IP-INF-CAT (VB eliminate) 
        (NP-OB1 (N fear)))))) 

(3.15)

(NP-SBJ 
  (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ My)) 
  (N wish) 
  (IP-INF (TO to) (VB;~Tn meet) 
    (NP-OB1 (NPR Samuel)))) 

• Some adjective phrases (often with their own dependents) can occur as post-head modifiers (e.g. something unusual, capital so vital for growth).

(3.16)

(NP-SBJ (D;_nphd_ something) 
  (ADJP (ADJ unusual))) 

(3.17)

(NP-OB1 (N capital) 
  (ADJP 
    (ADVP (ADV so)) 
    (ADJ vital) 
    (PP (P-ROLE for) 
      (NP (N growth))))) 

• Some adverb phrases can occur as post-head modifiers (e.g., everything else).

(3.18)

(NLYR (Q;_nphd_ everything) 
  (ADVP (ADV else))) 

3.2.3    Noun phrase internal layer

When there is need for structure internal to the noun phrase annotation, NLYR is used.

This occurs when either:

(i)

a nominal modifier is itself modified, or

(ii)

there is coordination within the noun phrase.

Section 3.2.4 illustrates (ii). Example (3.19) is a case of (i), with its adjective secondary a modifier of nominal modifier school.

(3.19)

(NP-SBJ 
  (ADJP (ADJ Total)) 
  (NLYR 
    (ADJP (ADJ secondary)) 
    (N school)) 
  (N spending) 
  (PP (P-ROLE in) 
    (NP (NPR Britain))) 
  (PP (P-ROLE per) 
    (NP (N pupil)))) 

Another example of (i) is (3.20) where a noun modifier occurs before an adjective phrase modifier:

(3.20)

(NP-SBJ (D The) 
  (NLYR (N e) (PUNC <hyphen>) (N commerce)) 
  (ADJP (ADJ free)) 
  (N zone)) 

Another example of (i) is (3.21) which has multiple noun modifiers that have nouns under NLYR layers:

(3.21)

(NP (D a) 
  (NLYR (NUM four) (PUNC <hyphen>) (N year)) 
  (NLYR 
    (ADJP (ADJ part)) 
    (PUNC <hyphen>) 
    (N time)) 
  (N drama) 
  (N course)) 

Yet another example of (i) is (3.22), with its preposition phrase modifier in aid of the nominal modifier grant.

(3.22)

(NP (D a) 
  (NLYR (N grant) 
    (PP (P-ROLE in) 
      (NP (N aid)))) 
  (N program)) 

This use of NLYR can be recursive:

(3.23)

(NP (D the) 
  (NLYR 
    (NLYR (NUM 2) (PUNC <hyphen>) (N score)) 
    (PUNC <hyphen>) 
    (N year)) 
  (N milestone)) 

(3.24)

(NP-OB1 
  (NLYR 
    (NLYR 
      (ADJP 
        (AJLYR 
          (AJLYR (ADJ middle)) 
          (PUNC <mdash>) 
          (CONJP (CONJ and) 
            (AJLYR (ADJ upper))))) 
      (PUNC <hyphen>) 
      (N level)) 
    (N management)) 
  (N personnel)) 

Further scenarios for (i) are (3.25) and (3.26). These illustrate how an NLYR layer can be used to isolate noun phrase content for modification by a quantifier.

(3.25)

(NP-PRD2 (NUM one) 
  (PP (P-ROLE in) 
    (NP (Q;_nphd_ every) 
      (NLYR (NUM five) (NS calls))))) 

(3.26)

(NP-PRD2 (Q;_nphd_ all) 
  (NLYR (D the) 
    (ADJP 
      (ADVP (ADV really)) 
      (ADJ obvious)) 
    (NS things))) 

Another example of NLYR use:

(3.27)

(NP (D the) 
  (ADJP (ADJ main)) 
  (NLYR (NPR Swafford) 
    (PP (P-ROLE to) 
      (NP (NPR Hardley)))) 
  (N road)) 

(3.28)

(NP-OB1 (D the) (PULQ <lsquo>) 
  (NLYR 
    (ADVP (ADV Back)) 
    (PP (P-ROLE to) 
      (NP (D the) (N city)))) 
  (N movement) 
  (PURQ <rsquo>) 
  (PP (P-ROLE from) 
    (NP (NS suburbs)))) 

(3.29)

(NP 
  (NLYR (N State) (N Highway) (N Department)) 
  (NLYR 
    (ADJP (ADJ public)) 
    (NS relations)) 
  (N director)) 

(3.30)

(NP (D the) (NUM first) 
  (NLYR (NUM two) (NS games)) 
  (NP-TMP (D this) (N year))) 

3.2.4    NP conjunction

When the content of a noun phrase involves conjunction, all conjuncts, except the first, receive a CONJP projection. These CONJP projections are adjoined to the first conjunct under an NLYR layer.

CONJP layers exist irrespective of the presence of an overt CONJ head, as illustrated in (3.31).

(3.31)

(NLYR (NUM four) (NS rooms) 
  (ADVP-LOC (ADV downstairs)) 
  (PRN 
    (NP 
      (NLYR 
        (NLYR (D a) (N kitchen)) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (CONJP 
          (NLYR (D a) (N hall))) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (CONJP 
          (NLYR (D a) (N dining) (N room))) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (CONJP (CONJ and) 
          (NLYR (D a) 
            (NLYR 
              (NLYR (N living) (N room)) 
              (CONJP (CONJ or) 
                (NLYR (N sitting) (N room)))))))))) 

Example (3.31) also shows how conjuncts can themselves contain conjuncts to give instances of layered conjunction. Layered conjunction is easiest to identify when different coordinators are used at each level, as with and and or in (3.31). Placement choices with layered conjunction will have consequences for the meaning captured by the annotation when different coordinators are involved.

    If there is a CONJ that starts the sequence of conjunctions, then this initial CONJ is placed at the NLYR layer that contains the conjuncts, as illustrated in (3.32).

(3.32)

(IP-PPL-CAT (VAG entrusting) 
  (NP-OB1 
    (NLYR (NEG not) 
      (ADVP-MOD (ADV only)) 
      (NLYR 
        (NP-GENV 
          (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ his)) 
          (ADJP (ADJ own))) 
        (N life)) 
      (PUNC ,) 
      (CONJP (CONJ but) 
        (NLYR 
          (NP-GENV (NPR Geoffrey) (GENM <apos>s))) 
        (ADVP-MOD (ADV as_well)))))) 

Example (3.32) also shows how an ADVP-MOD element can occur at the end of a conjunction sequence, in which case it occurs at the level of the prior conjuncts. An ADVP-MOD or ADVP-CNT can also occur before a conjunct, in which case it occurs at the CONJP layer of the conjunct it precedes, as illustrated in (3.33) and (3.34),

(3.33)

(NLYR 
  (NLYR (D The) (N volume)) 
  (CONJP (CONJ and) (PUNC ,) 
    (ADVP-MOD (ADV perhaps)) 
    (PUNC ,) 
    (ADVP-MOD (ADV even)) 
    (NLYR (D the) (NS characteristics) 
      (PP (P-ROLE of) 
        (NP 
          (ADJP (ADJ bronchial)) 
          (ADJP (ADJ arterial)) 
          (N blood) 
          (N flow)))))) 

(3.34)

(PP-CLR (P-ROLE in) 
  (NP 
    (NLYR 
      (NLYR (D a) 
        (ADJP 
          (ADVP (ADVR more)) 
          (ADJ severe)) 
        (N problem) 
        (PP (P-ROLE of) 
          (IP-PPL (VAG;~I flooding)))) 
      (CONJP (CONJ and) (PUNC ,) 
        (ADVP-CNT (ADV consequently)) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (NLYR 
          (ADJP (ADJ environmental)) 
          (N degradation)))))) 

    In the cases of NLYR with coordination seen so far the NLYR itself forms the head of the overall noun phrase that contains it, with nothing else outside this complex head. It is also possible for a complex head involving coordination to itself be modified, as (3.35) demonstrates.

(3.35)

(NP (D the) 
  (ADJP (ADJ environmental)) 
  (NLYR 
    (NLYR (NS issues)) 
    (CONJP (CONJ and) 
      (NLYR (NS problems)))) 
  (IP-REL 
    (NP-SBJ (RPRO that)) 
    (VBP;~Tn face) 
    (NP-OB1 (PRO us)) 
    (ADVP-NIM-TMP (ADV today)))) 

(3.36)

(NP 
  (NP-GENV (NPR Plymouth) (GENM <apos>s)) 
  (NLYR (N hedgehog)) 
  (NLYR 
    (NLYR (N rehabilitation)) 
    (CONJP (CONJ and) 
      (NLYR (N care) (N centre))))) 

    The modifier of a head noun can itself involve noun phrase coordination internally, as (3.37) and (3.39) illustrate. In such cases there is an NLYR layer to introduce the modifier that immediately contains as its only daughter the NLYR layer that contains the conjuncts.

(3.37)

(NP-SBJ (D a) 
  (NLYR 
    (NLYR 
      (NLYR (N mouse)) 
      (CONJP (CONJ and) 
        (NLYR (N keyboard))))) 
  (N combination)) 

(3.38)

(NLYR 
  (NLYR 
    (ADVP (ADV about)) 
    (N number) 
    (NLYR 
      (NLYR 
        (NLYR (NUM two)) 
        (CONJP (CONJ or) 
          (NLYR (NUM three)))))) 
  (CONJP (CONJ or) 
    (NLYR (D;_nphd_ something) 
      (PP (P-ROLE like) 
        (NP (D;_nphd_ that)))))) 

(3.39)

(NP-SBJ 
  (NLYR 
    (NLYR 
      (NLYR 
        (ADJP 
          (ADVP 
            (ADVP (ADV Even)) 
            (ADVR more)) 
          (ADJ complex))) 
      (CONJP (CONJ and) 
        (NLYR 
          (IP-PPL (NP-LGS *) 
            (ADVP-NIM-MOD (ADV obviously)) 
            (ADVP-NIM-MNR (ADV cortically)) 
            (VVN;~Tn induced)))))) 
  (NS forms) 
  (PP (P-ROLE of) 
    (NP 
      (ADJP (ADJ emotional)) 
      (N arousal)))) 

    Note how the conjuncts of the internal noun phrase coordination that is a head noun modifier in (3.39) actually contain respectively: only (i) an adjective phrase, and (ii) a participial clause. The level of noun phrase for these conjuncts is motivated by the need for all conjuncts of a conjunction to be phrases of the same type.

3.2.5    PRN inside noun phrases

(3.40)

(NP-SBJ 
  (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ its)) 
  (N coverage) 
  (PUNC <mdash>) 
  (PRN 
    (NP 
      (NLYR 
        (NLYR (N fiction)) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (CONJP 
          (NLYR (N biography))) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (CONJP 
          (NLYR (N travel))) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (CONJP 
          (NLYR (NS hobbies))) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (CONJP 
          (NLYR 
            (ADJP (ADJ popular)) 
            (N science))) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (ADVP-CNT (ADV etc<dot>)))))) 

(3.41)

(NP (NUM ones) 
  (PP (P-ROLE in) 
    (NP 
      (NLYR 
        (NLYR 
          (NLYR (N export)) 
          (CONJP (CONJ and) 
            (NLYR 
              (ADJP (ADJ domestic)))))) 
      (NS markets))) 
  (PUNC ,) 
  (ADVP (ADV particularly)) 
  (PRN 
    (PP (P-ROLE by) 
      (NP 
        (ADJP (ADJ German)) 
        (NS manufactures))))) 

3.2.6    NP functions

The notion of function helps to establish how a given noun phrase acts as a single unit (constituent) regardless of its size. For example, as a noun phrase whose head word has multiple modifiers, (3.2) above occurs as a subject (NP-SBJ) in (3.42a) and as an object (NP-OB1) in (3.43a) in the same way as noun phrases with fewer elements are also able to occur with these functions, e.g, a noun phrase consisting of a head noun with definite article in (3.42b) and (3.43b), or a pronoun as the single phrase element in (3.42c) and (3.43c).

(3.42)

a.

(NP-SBJ The healthy vegetable pizza that I made) was delicious .

b.

(NP-SBJ The pizza) was delicious .

c.

(NP-SBJ It) was delicious .

(3.43)

a.

They loved (NP-OB1 the healthy vegetable pizza that I made) .

b.

They loved (NP-OB1 the pizza) .

c.

They loved (NP-OB1 it) .

    The examples of (3.44) show that the same noun phrase (that way) is able to take on various different functions depending on its contribution to the containing clause.

(3.44)

a.

(NP-SBJ That way) is completely wrong . [subject]

b.

Someone will discover (NP-OB1 that way) . [direct object]

c.

They will keep it (NP-PRD that way) . [predicative]

d.

He hurried (NP-DIR that way) . [directional]

e.

Just hold it (NP-MNR that way) . [manner]

    Section 4.3.4 lists node label extensions that indicate adverbial functions, all of which except -BNF and -COM can be used with NP. An NP can also take an adverbial function from occurring as complement of a preposition (such as of, to, with, at, by, etc.) (see section 3.5.4).

    An NP might also occur in the genitive construction, seen in section 2.2.5, with the tag of Table 3.29.

    An NP might be a vocative with the tag of Table 3.30, as in (3.45).

A vocative noun phrase is a noun phrase which directly addresses someone, e.g., Summers in (3.45) and Rebecca in (3.46).

(3.45)

(FRAG 
  (NP (NUM One) (N thing)) 
  (PUNC ,) 
  (NP-VOC (NPR Summers))) 

(3.46)

(IP-MAT 
  (ADVP-NIM-CNT (ADV so)) 
  (NP-VOC-DSC;{REBECCA} (NPR Rebecca) (NPR <name>)) 
  (NP-SBJ;{REBECCA} (PRO you)) 
  (VBP;~Tt want) 
  (IP-INF-OB1 (TO to) (BE;~La be) 
    (ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ famous)))) 

See section 4.2.3 for discussion on NP-VOC in imperative sentences.

    Finally, an NP might be a reflexive with the tag of Table 3.31, as in (3.47).

(3.47)

(IP-MAT 
  (NP-SBJ (PRO we)) 
  (BEP;~cat_Vg <apos>re) 
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG;~cat_Vt gon) 
    (IP-INF-CAT (TO na) (HV;~cat_Vt have) 
      (IP-INF-CAT (TO to) (VB;~Tn share) 
        (NP-OB1 (PRO them)) 
        (NP-RFL 
          (NLYR 
            (NLYR (PRO me)) 
            (CONJP (CONJ and) 
              (NLYR (N dad))))))))) 

3.3    Adjective phrase (ADJP)

This section considers the form and function of adjective phrases.

3.3.1    ADJP heads

The head of an ADJP is an adjective. The head adjective can be:

• plain (ADJ; e.g. big),
• comparative (ADJR; e.g. bigger), or
• superlative (ADJS; e.g. biggest).

3.3.2    ADJP dependents

Instances of ADJP can have various dependents which modify the head, such as adverb phrases (ADVP), preposition phrases (PP), or clauses.

• Adverbs modify the head to provide information about degree and commonly occur before the head (e.g. so important), although a few occur after (e.g. easy enough).

(3.48)

(ADJP-PRD2 
  (ADVP (ADV so)) 
  (ADJ important)) 

(3.49)

(ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ easy) 
  (ADVP (ADV enough))) 

• Some adverbs as premodifiers, especially very and really, can be repeated (e.g. very very rude).

(3.50)

(ADJP 
  (ADVP (ADV very)) 
  (ADVP (ADV very)) 
  (ADJ rude)) 

• An NP can also act as a modifier in an ADJP (e.g. a bit more, aged sixty five years). Such an NP takes no function marking itself.

(3.51)

(ADJP 
  (NP (D;_nphd_ a_bit)) 
  (ADJR more)) 

(3.52)

(ADJP (ADJ aged) 
  (NP (NUM sixty_<hyphen>_five) (NS years))) 

• Dependents which typically occur after the head of an ADJP are PP (e.g. free from difficulty) and clauses (e.g. able to do that, unaware that certain information actually exists).

(3.53)

(ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ free) 
  (PP (P-ROLE from) 
    (NP (N difficulty)))) 

(3.54)

(ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ;_cat_ able) 
  (IP-INF (TO to) (DO;~Tn do) 
    (NP-OB1 (D;_nphd_ that)))) 

(3.55)

(ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ unaware) 
  (CP-THT 
    (IP-SUB (C that) 
      (NP-SBJ 
        (ADJP (ADJ certain)) 
        (N information)) 
      (ADVP-NIM-MOD (ADV actually)) 
      (VBP;~I exists)))) 

• PP can also act as premodifiers in an ADJP (e.g. for the most part unproductive).

(3.56)

(AJLYR 
  (PP (P-ROLE for) 
    (NP (D the) 
      (ADVP (ADVS most)) 
      (N part))) 
  (ADJ unproductive)) 

3.3.3    ADJP conjunction

When the content of an adjective phrase involves conjunction, all conjuncts, except the first, receive a CONJP projection. This gives structure parallel to the conjoined NP structure of section 3.2.4, but with CONJP projections adjoined to the first conjunct under an AJLYR layer. CONJP layers exist irrespective of the presence of an overt CONJ head, as in (3.57).

(3.57)

(IP-REL (BEP;~La is) 
  (ADJP-PRD2 
    (AJLYR 
      (AJLYR (ADJ majestic)) 
      (PUNC ,) 
      (CONJP 
        (AJLYR (ADJ courageous))) 
      (CONJP (CONJ and) 
        (AJLYR (ADJ proud)))))) 

(3.58)

(IP-REL (BED;~La was) 
  (ADJP-PRD2 
    (AJLYR 
      (AJLYR 
        (NP (Q;_nphd_ all)) 
        (AJLYR 
          (AJLYR (ADJ well)) 
          (CONJP (CONJ and) 
            (AJLYR (ADJ good))))) 
      (CONJP (CONJ but) 
        (AJLYR 
          (NP (D;_nphd_ a_bit)) 
          (AJLYR 
            (AJLYR (ADJ clunky)) 
            (CONJP (CONJ and) 
              (AJLYR (ADJ horrible))))))))) 

(3.59)

(NP 
  (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ his)) 
  (ADJP 
    (AJLYR 
      (AJLYR (ADJ craggy)) 
      (CONJP 
        (ADVP-CNT (ADV yet)) 
        (AJLYR (ADJ handsome))))) 
  (N face)) 

    Note that it is possible for a conjunct under AJLYR to be a PP, as in (3.60).

(3.60)

(IP-MAT (BED;~La was) 
  (ADJP-PRD2 
    (AJLYR 
      (AJLYR (ADJ wide)) 
      (CONJP (CONJ and) 
        (PP (P-ROLE in) 
          (NP (D the) (N dirt))))))) 

3.3.4    ADJP functions

ADJP can act as modifiers of a noun phrase head. In doing so, they are said to have ATTRIBUTIVE function. With the annotation, an attributive ADJP occurs without a tag extension, as in (3.61) and (3.62), since placement under NP unambiguously captures the attributive function.

(3.61)

(NP-PRD2 (D a) 
  (ADJP (ADJ good)) 
  (N swimmer)) 

(3.62)

(NP-PRD2 (D a) 
  (ADJP 
    (ADVP (ADV very)) 
    (ADJ good)) 
  (N swimmer)) 

    In a clause, an ADJP will typically have a PREDICATIVE function, marked with the tag extension -PRD(2) (see section 4.3.3), and with a PREDICATE POSITION after verbs that include BE, APPEAR, SEEM, SOUND, MAKE (e.g. The cookbook is practical, This description sounds familiar, It makes me uneasy).

3.4    Adverb phrase (ADVP)

This section considers the form and function of adverb phrases.

3.4.1    ADVP heads

The head of an ADVP can be:

• a plain adverb (ADV; e.g. far),
• a comparative adverb (ADVR; e.g. farther),
• a superlative adverb (ADVS; e.g. farthest),
• a WH-adverb that is the relative adverb of a relative clause (RADV; e.g. how, when, where, whereby),
• a WH-adverb (WADV; e.g. how, when, where, why), or
• an adverb particle (RP; e.g. up).

3.4.2    ADVP dependents

The structure of an ADVP is the same as that of an ADJP.

3.4.3    ADVP conjunction

Conjunction with an ADVP is the same as with an ADJP. With the annotation, CONJP projections are adjoined to the first CONJP-less conjunct under an AVLYR layer.

(3.63)

(ILYR 
  (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) 
  (VBD used) 
  (NP-OB1 (PRO it)) 
  (ADVP-NIM-TMP 
    (ADVP (ADV about)) 
    (AVLYR 
      (AVLYR (ADV once)) 
      (CONJP (CONJ or) 
        (AVLYR (ADV twice)))))) 

    Note that it is possible for a conjunct under AVLYR to be a PP, as in (3.64).

(3.64)

(NLYR (D;_nphd_ those) 
  (IP-REL 
    (NP-SBJ (RPRO who)) 
    (HVP;~cat_Ve have) 
    (ADVP-NIM-TMP 
      (AVLYR 
        (AVLYR (ADV never)) 
        (PUNC ,) 
        (CONJP (CONJ or) (NEG not) 
          (PP (P-ROLE for) 
            (NP (D a) 
              (ADJP (ADJ long)) 
              (N time)))))) 
    (PUNC ,) 
    (IP-PPL-CAT (HVN had) 
      (NP-OB1 
        (ADJP (ADJ;_such_ such)) 
        (NS problems))))) 

(3.65)

(IP-PPL-CAT (VAG referring) 
  (PP-CLR (NEG not) 
    (PP-CLR 
      (ADVP-MOD (ADV only)) 
      (P-ROLE to) 
      (NP (D the) 
        (ADJP (ADJ general)) 
        (N college) 
        (N situation))) 
    (CONJP (CONJ but) 
      (PP-CLR 
        (ADVP-MOD 
          (ADVP (ADVR more)) 
          (ADV especially)) 
        (P-ROLE to) 
        (NP (D the) 
          (ADJP (ADJ preparatory)) 
          (NS schools)))))) 

3.4.4    ADVP functions

Adverb phrases are able to modify adjectives (e.g. totally disgusting), and verbs (e.g. strongly supported). Adverb phrases can also modify preposition phrases (e.g. far up the valley), noun phrases (e.g. nearly a decade), adverb phrases (e.g. Quite often), and clauses (e.g. of_course you can).

(3.66)

(ADJP-PRD 
  (ADVP (ADV totally)) 
  (ADJ disgusting)) 

(3.67)

(IP-PPL 
  (ADVP-NIM-MNR (ADV strongly)) 
  (VVN;~Tn supported)) 

(3.68)

(PP-NIM-LOC 
  (ADVP-DIR (ADV Far)) 
  (P-ROLE up) 
  (NP (D the) (N valley))) 

(3.69)

(PP-NIM-CNT 
  (ADVP-MOD 
    (AVLYR 
      (AVLYR (ADV purely)) 
      (CONJP (CONJ and) 
        (AVLYR (ADV simply))))) 
  (P-ROLE for) 
  (NP (D the) (N money))) 

(3.70)

(NP 
  (ADVP (ADV nearly)) 
  (D a) 
  (N decade)) 

(3.71)

(ADVP-NIM-TMP 
  (ADVP (ADV Quite)) 
  (ADV often)) 

(3.72)

(IP-MAT 
  (ADVP-NIM-MOD (ADV of_course)) 
  (NP-SBJ (PRO you)) 
  (MD;~cat_Vi can)) 

    Instances of ADVP function in the clause as adverbials. Section 4.3.4 lists node label extensions that indicate adverbial functions, all of which except -BNF can be used with ADVP. For example, the adverb phrase in (3.73) has directional function.

(3.73)

(IP-INF-CAT (VB;~Ip go) 
  (ADVP-CLR-DIR 
    (ADVP 
      (ADVP (RP on)) 
      (RP up)) 
    (ADV there))) 

    Adverbials can occur with selected functions -OB1 (direct object) and -PRD(2) (predicative).

(3.74)

(IP-MAT 
  (NP-SBJ (PRO it)) 
  (VBP takes) 
  (NP-OB1 
    (ADVP 
      (ADVP (ADV so)) 
      (ADV long)))) 

(3.75)

(IP-MAT 
  (NP-SBJ (D the) (N game)) 
  (BEP <apos>s) 
  (ADVP-PRD2 (RP over))) 

3.5    Preposition phrase (PP)

This section considers the form and function of preposition phrases.

3.5.1    PP heads

A preposition phrase (PP) has a preposition word (P-ROLE) as its head and this is usually followed by a noun phrase (e.g. on the table). Some prepositions consist of more than one word and are called multi-word (or complex) prepositions. For example, adjacent_to, in_front_of.

3.5.2    PP dependents

The other phrase types of this chapter (NP, ADJP, and ADVP) can contain only the head word. A preposition phrase (PP) is different: There is normally a dependent. This happens because prepositions generally require a following noun phrase (NP) or clause (IP). When the dependent of a phrase is a necessary presence, the dependent is called a COMPLEMENT. For example, the PP out_of the box contains the preposition head word out_of and the NP complement the box, to give the structure of (3.76).

(3.76)

(PP-NIM-DIR (P-ROLE out_of) 
  (NP (D the) (N box))) 

3.5.3    PP conjunction

Instances of PP are conjoined at the top level of their structure.

(3.77)

(IP-MAT 
  (PP-NIM 
    (PP-DIR (P-ROLE Across) 
      (NP (D the) (NPR Commonwealth))) 
    (CONJP (CONJ and) 
      (PP-DIR (P-ROLE around) 
        (NP (D the) (N world))))) 
  (PUNC ,)) 

(3.78)

(ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ skilled) 
  (PP (NEG not) 
    (ADVP-MOD (ADV merely)) 
    (PP (P-ROLE at) 
      (NP (N response))) 
    (CONJP (CONJ but) 
      (ADVP-MOD (ADV also)) 
      (PP (P-ROLE at) 
        (NP (N projection)))))) 

(3.79)

(IP-INF (PUNC ,) 
  (PP-NIM 
    (PP-CNT (P-ROLE in) 
      (NP (NS cases) 
        (IP-PPL (VAG involving) 
          (NP-OB1 
            (ADJP (ADJ imprisonable)) 
            (NS offences))))) 
    (PUNC ,) 
    (CONJP (CONJ and) 
      (ADVP-MOD (ADV even) (PP *ICH*-189)) 
      (PP-CNT (P-ROLE in_connection_with) 
        (NP 
          (ADJP (ADJ non_<hyphen>_imprisonable)) 
          (NS offences))) 
      (PP-EPD-189 (P-ROLE in) 
        (NP 
          (ADJP (ADJ exceptional)) 
          (NS cases)))))) 

(3.80)

(IP-MAT (PUNC ;) 
  (PP-NIM (CONJ either) 
    (PP-RST 
      (ADVP-MOD (ADV for_example)) 
      (P-ROLE in) 
      (IP-PPL (VAG building))) 
    (CONJP (CONJ or) 
      (PP-RST 
        (IP-PPL (VAG farming)))))) 

(3.81)

(IP-SUB 
  (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) 
  (VBD;~Ipr went) 
  (PP-CLR 
    (PP-DIR (P-ROLE to) 
      (NP 
        (NLYR 
          (ADJP (ADJ late)) 
          (PUNC <hyphen>) 
          (N night)) 
        (NS movies))) 
    (PUNC ,) 
    (CONJP (CONJ and) 
      (ADVP-CNT (ADV then)) 
      (PP-DIR (P-ROLE on_to) 
        (NP (NS parties)))))) 

3.5.4    PP functions

In the clause, a PP typically acts as an adverbial. All of the possible adverbial roles listed in section 4.3.4 can be used with PP. In addition, PP-OB2 of section 4.3.2.2 is possible to make an indirect object, which gains the content of its role from being a verb selected element.