Chapter 4

Clauses

4.1    Introduction

Instances of clause subordination were seen in chapter 3 as modifiers and complements within phrases. Chapter 5 will cover options for clause-within-clause subordination. In this chapter, section 4.2 gives annotation to distinguish matrix clause types. Section 4.3 presents the analysis of function for phrase components of a clause. Finally, section 4.4 introduces clause internal coordination with CONJP (conjunction phrase) and ILYR (clause internal) layers.

4.2    Matrix clause types

A clause is a matrix clause when it is not subordinate, that is, when it is not contained within a higher phrase or clause. The internal form of a matrix clause can determine its use, and this gives rise to a basis for distinguishing the different matrix clause types of:

• declaratives (discussed in section 4.2.1)
• interrogatives (discussed in section 4.2.2)
• imperatives (discussed in section 4.2.3)
• sentence fragments (discussed in section 4.2.4)

4.2.1    Declaratives

Table 4.34: Tag for matrix clause

A basic matrix clause with the tag of Table 4.34 is a declarative clause. A basic matrix clause requires a finite verb. For example, (4.1) has the past tense verb cried.

(4.1)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,VBD;~Tn.p,cried
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,NP-GENV,PRO;_genm_,my
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,NS,eyes
IP-MAT,ADVP-DIR,RP,out
IP-MAT,PP-CNT,P-ROLE,at
IP-MAT,PP-CNT,NP,D;_nphd_,that
ID,106_christine_t27

Modal verbs only have finite forms. The short form 'll of WILL occurs as the finte verb of (4.2), with cry as a following infinitive lexical verb.

(4.2)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,MD;~cat_Vi,<apos>ll
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,VB;~I,cry
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,NP-MNR,D;_nphd_,some
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,NP-MNR,ADJP,ADJR,more
ID,431_christine_t21

A finite DO can also occur with an infinitive lexical verb, as in (4.3), with did as past tense DO acting to emphasise the kiss.

(4.3)

IP-MAT,CONJ;_cl_,And
IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,he
IP-MAT,DOD,did
IP-MAT,VB;~Tn,kiss
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,PRO,me
ID,73_a_lob_n02

    Basic declarative clauses have positive polarity. The polarity of a matrix clause is inverted by adding negation, either as the full form not (e.g., (4.4)) or the contracted n't (e.g., (4.5) and (4.6)). Both forms need a preceding (immediately preceding when there is contraction) modal verb or finite form of BE, HAVE, or DO.

(4.4)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,D;_nphd_,This
IP-MAT,BEP;~Ln,is
IP-MAT,NEG,not
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,D,an
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,ADJP,ADJ,acceptable
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,N,turnover
ID,112_lucy_bnc_b41

(4.5)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,MD;~cat_Vi,wo
IP-MAT,NEG;_clitic_,n<apos>t
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,VB;~I,cry
ID,466_christine_t21

(4.6)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,N,People
IP-MAT,DOP,do
IP-MAT,NEG;_clitic_,n<apos>t
IP-MAT,PUNC,<bital>
IP-MAT,DO;~Tn,do
IP-MAT,PUNC,<eital>
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,D;_nphd_,that
ID,147_lucy_bnc_c02

4.2.2    Interrogatives

Table 4.35: Tags for interrogative clause

Annotation for a matrix interrogative clause involves an IP-SUB clause layer that: (i) contains all of the clause content (except end punctuation), and (ii) projects a CP-QUE-MAT layer. A matrix interrogative is formed by having an initial clause component that is either:

(i)

a modal verb (e.g., (4.7)),

(ii)

a finite BE or a finite HAVE or a finite DO (e.g., (4.8) and (4.9))

(iii)

a constituent that includes a WH word (e.g. (4.10) – (4.15))

A clause with (i) or (ii) is called a yes/no question. A clause with (iii) is called a constituent question. For matrix constituent questions where the initial clause component is a non-subject, before the clause subject occurs, there needs to have occurred a modal verb or finite form of BE, HAVE, or DO, as seen with (4.11) – (4.15).

(4.7)

IP-SUB,MD;~cat_Vi,shall
IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,we
IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,VBP;~Ipr,go
IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,PP-CLR-DIR,P-ROLE,in
IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,NP-GENV,NPR,Tesco
IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,NP-GENV,GENM,<apos>s
ID,173_christine_t36

(4.8)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,BEP;~Ln,Is
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,P-ROLE,that
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ADVP-TMP,ADV,still
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,NP-GENV,PRO;_genm_,his
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,N,position
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,22_a_major_case

(4.9)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,DOP,Does
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,it
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,VB;~I,work
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,73_lucy_bnc_b17

(4.10)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,WPRO,who
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,VBD;~Tn,smacked
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-OB1,PRO,you
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,188_christine_t33

(4.11)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-OB1,WPRO,What
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,DOP,do
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,you
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,VB;~Tn,mean
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,321_a_dick_1952

(4.12)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,NP-GENV,WPRO;_genm_,whose
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,N,turn
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,BEP;~Ln,is
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,it
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,213_christine_t09

(4.13)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ADVP-CNT,WADV,why
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,DOD,did
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,you
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,DOP;~Tn,do
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-OB1,D;_nphd_,that
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,158_christine_t35

(4.14)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ADVP-MNR,WADV,how
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,DOP,do
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,VB;~Tn,spell
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-OB1,WPRO,what
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,22_christine_t34

(4.15)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,PP-126,P-ROLE,In
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,PP-126,NP,WD,what
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,PP-126,NP,NS,ways
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,MD;~cat_Vi,might
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,they
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,PP-MNR,*ICH*-126
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,ADVP-TMP,ADV,still
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,BE;~Ln,be
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,NP-PRD2,D,the
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,IP-INF-CAT,NP-PRD2,ADJP,ADJ,same
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,20_a_fce_0100_2000_12

4.2.3    Imperatives

Table 4.36: Tag for imperative clause

An imperative clause requires a verb in the imperative form. The imperative form is a finite form of the verb that is typically equivalent to the infinitive form, and so the verb is tagged in the same way as an infinitive. It is appearance under an IP-IMP layer that distinguishes the verb as having imperative form.

    Another property that marks the imperative clause as a distinct matrix clause type is the typical absence of a subject constituent. Presence of a constituent with vocative function is one way open for the construction to have a referenced ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’ or ‘have-er’ for the verb, as in (4.16) and (4.17).

(4.16)

IP-IMP,VB;~I,Stop
IP-IMP,NP-VOC,N,thief
IP-IMP,PUNC,!
ID,13_a_potter_1902

(4.17)

IP-IMP,NP-VOC,PRO,You
IP-IMP,VB;~phr_Vp,shut
IP-IMP,RP,up
IP-IMP,PUNC,!
ID,10_susanne_n09

4.2.4    Sentence fragments

Presence of either (i) a subject and a finite verb, or (ii) an imperative verb warrants marking the enclosing structure as a clause (IP). When there is not enough material in an utterance to create an IP, the utterance is marked as a sentence fragment with the tag of Table 4.37.

Table 4.37: Tag for sentence fragment

Examples (4.18) – (4.22) are illustrative of possible FRAG utterances.

(4.18)

FRAG,ADVP-MOD,ADV,just
FRAG,META,{pause}
FRAG,PP-DIR,P-ROLE,up
FRAG,PP-DIR,NP,D,the
FRAG,PP-DIR,NP,NS,stairs
ID,71_christine_t40

(4.19)

FRAG,NP-SBJ,Q;_nphd_,all
FRAG,NP-SBJ,IP-REL,NP-SBJ,PRO,you
FRAG,NP-SBJ,IP-REL,VBP;~cat_Vt,seem
FRAG,NP-SBJ,IP-REL,IP-INF-CAT,NP-OB1,*T*
FRAG,NP-SBJ,IP-REL,IP-INF-CAT,TO,to
FRAG,NP-SBJ,IP-REL,IP-INF-CAT,VB;~I,think
FRAG,CP-THT-PRD2,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,it
FRAG,CP-THT-PRD2,IP-SUB,BEP;~Ln,<apos>s
FRAG,CP-THT-PRD2,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,FLJ,bloody
FRAG,CP-THT-PRD2,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,N,Hallowe<apos>en
FRAG,CP-THT-PRD2,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,IP-PPL,VVN;~Ip,come
FRAG,CP-THT-PRD2,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,IP-PPL,ADVP-CLR-DIR,ADV,back
FRAG,CP-THT-PRD2,IP-SUB,NP-PRD2,IP-PPL,ADVP-TMP,ADV,again
ID,458_christine_t04

(4.20)

FRAG,ADVP-MNR,ADV,sadly
FRAG,ADVP-TMP,NP,Q;_nphd_,no
FRAG,ADVP-TMP,ADVR,longer
FRAG,PP-CLR-PRD2,P-ROLE,with
FRAG,PP-CLR-PRD2,NP,PRO,us
ID,59_a_paulfellows

(4.21)

ILYR,ILYR,REACT,yes
ILYR,CONJP,CONJ,or
ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,REACT,no
ID,208_christine_t09

(4.22)

FRAG,REACT,Really
FRAG,PUNC,?
ID,198_a_dick_1952

Note how (4.21) involves clause internal coordination, with the inclusion of CONJP and ILYR projections, as explained below in section 4.4.

4.3    Clause function

Besides clause level words (notably verbs, but also negation, adverb particles, and existential there), phrases may occur as components of annotated clause structure. To occur at the clause level, a phrase component requires a tag with an extension for a clause level function. Available clause level functions are:

• subject (discussed in section 4.3.1)
• object(s) (discussed in section 4.3.2)
• predicative (discussed in section 4.3.3)
• adverbial(s) (discussed in section 4.3.4)

4.3.1    Subject

Table 4.38: The full range of tag extensions related to the subject function

A subject is always required in a basic clause. The subject is typically the noun phrase corresponding to the ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’ or ‘have-er’ of the verb. The subject can determine the form of the first verb instance of the clause (e.g. I am, he/she/it is, we/you (all)/they are). Also, with regards to form, pronoun subject forms I/we/he/she/they contrast with non-subject forms me/us/him/her/them.

    Subjects typically occur with a clause initial position. For a couple of untypical clause types, the subject can appear after an initial verb. This holds especially for interrogatives, as in examples of section 4.2.2 above. Inversion of the subject and an initial verb can also occur after a frontmost adverbial phrase with a (semi-)negative adverbial head such as hardly, scarcely, little, never, seldom, rarely), as in (4.23).

(4.23)

IP-MAT,ADVP-TMP,ADV,Never
IP-MAT,ADVP-TMP,PP,P-ROLE,at
IP-MAT,ADVP-TMP,PP,NP,D,any
IP-MAT,ADVP-TMP,PP,NP,N,time
IP-MAT,DOP,does
IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,D,the
IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,N,user
IP-MAT,VB;~La,feel
IP-MAT,ADJP-PRD2,ADJ,constrained
ID,28_lucy_student_e82

Inversion of the subject with a modal verb or finite form of BE, HAVE, or DO also happens with and so reduced clauses:

(4.24)

ILYR,ILYR,PP-TMP,P-ROLE,By
ILYR,ILYR,PP-TMP,ADVP,ADV,then
ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,NPR,Hez
ILYR,ILYR,MD;~cat_Vi,could
ILYR,ILYR,IP-INF-CAT,VB;~I,see
ILYR,ILYR,IP-INF-CAT,PP-BNF,P-ROLE,for
ILYR,ILYR,IP-INF-CAT,PP-BNF,NP,PNX,himself
ILYR,PUNC,<comma>
ILYR,CONJP,CONJ,and
ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ADVP-MNR,ADV,so
ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,MD;~cat_Vi,could
ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-SBJ,D,the
ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-SBJ,NS,others
ID,41_susanne_n13

Also, the subject occurs after the verb in clauses with existential there.

(4.25)

IP-MAT,EX,There
IP-MAT,VBP;~ex_cat_Vt,remain
IP-MAT,NP-ESBJ,ADJP,ADJ,many
IP-MAT,NP-ESBJ,ADJP;@2,AJLYR,ADJP,ADJ,political
IP-MAT,NP-ESBJ,ADJP;@2,AJLYR,CONJP,CONJ,and
IP-MAT,NP-ESBJ,ADJP;@2,AJLYR,CONJP,ADJP,ADJ,administrative
IP-MAT,NP-ESBJ,NS,problems
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,TO,to
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,BE;~cat_Ve_passive_,be
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,IP-PPL-CAT,NP-LGS,*
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,IP-PPL-CAT,VVN;~Tn,solved
ID,54_susanne_j22

    In the annotation, -SBJ is the basic tag extension for marking a subject. Other more specialised markings in table 4.38 relate to the subject function in particular constructions:

• tag extension -ESBJ marks the subject of a clause with existential there, as in (4.25) above
• tag extension -NSBJ marks a notional subject that co-occurs in a clause with: (i) a provisional subject it tagged PRO;_provisional_, as in (4.27); or (ii) a derived subject marked -SBJ and so not distinguished independently of the construction, as in (4.28)

(4.26)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO;_cleft_,it
IP-MAT,BEP;~cleft_V,<apos>s
IP-MAT,NP-FOC,D,that
IP-MAT,NP-FOC,N,kind
IP-MAT,NP-FOC,PP,P-ROLE,of
IP-MAT,NP-FOC,PP,NP,N,smell
IP-MAT,IP-CLF,NP-SBJ,PRO,he
IP-MAT,IP-CLF,BEP,<apos>s
IP-MAT,IP-CLF,PP-LOC,P-ROLE,into
ID,5_christine_t37

(4.27)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO;_provisional_,it
IP-MAT,BEP;~La,<apos>s
IP-MAT,NEG,not
IP-MAT,ADJP-PRD2,ADJ,right
IP-MAT,NP-NSBJ,D;_nphd_,this
ID,280_christine_t38

(4.28)

ILYR,NP-SBJ,D,The
ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,breaststroke
ILYR,BEP;~La,is
ILYR,ADJP-PRD2,ADVP,ADV,very
ILYR,ADJP-PRD2,ADJ,hard
ILYR,IP-INF-NSBJ,NP-LGS,*
ILYR,IP-INF-NSBJ,TO,to
ILYR,IP-INF-NSBJ,VB;~Tn.pr,explain
ILYR,IP-INF-NSBJ,PP-CLR-MNR,P-ROLE,in
ILYR,IP-INF-NSBJ,PP-CLR-MNR,NP,NS,words
ID,3_a_stories_09_m14

    The subject can also be it as a dummy element tagged PRO;_expletive_ which has nothing else to relate to in the clause and essentially fills the role of licensing a contentless subject, as in (4.29).

(4.29)

IP-SUB,BEP;~cat_Vg,is
IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO;_expletive_,it
IP-SUB,IP-PPL-CAT,ADVP-TMP,ADV,still
IP-SUB,IP-PPL-CAT,VAG;~I,raining
ID,331_christine_t21

4.3.2    Object

An object can only occur when there is a transitive verb. The following properties are typical:

• An object is normally a noun phrase that follows its transitive verb, and gives the content that the transitive verb is acting upon.
• An object cannot be an adjective phrase (in contrast to predicatives).
• An object can be turned into the subject of a corresponding passive clause. Compare Everyone saw me with I was seen (by everyone).
• An object pronoun is in the accusative case. For example, in He likes her and She likes him, the accusative forms her and him fill the object position.

There are two types of objects:

• direct object (-OB1) (discussed in section 4.3.2.1)
• indirect object (-OB2) (discussed in section 4.3.2.2)

Also, section 4.3.2.2 notes that preposition phrases with indiect object function (PP-OB2) are possible.

4.3.2.1    Direct object

Table 4.39: The full range of tag extensions related to the direct object function

A direct object generally follows immediately after its transitive verb, except where an indirect object intervenes. In the annotation, -OB1 is the basic tag extension for marking a direct object. Other more specialised markings seen in table 4.39 relate to the direct object function in particular constructions:

• a derived direct object marked -DOB1 occurs in a clause alongside a non-finite embedded clause marked -OB1, as with (4.30) and (4.31)
• tag extension -NOB1 marks a notional direct object that occurs in a clause with a provisional direct object it, tagged PRO;_provisional_, as with (4.32) and (4.33)

(4.30)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,We
IP-MAT,VBP;~Tnt,want
IP-MAT,NP-DOB1,NS,children
IP-MAT,IP-INF-OB1,TO,to
IP-MAT,IP-INF-OB1,VB;~Tn,fulfil
IP-MAT,IP-INF-OB1,NP-OB1,NP-GENV,PRO;_genm_,their
IP-MAT,IP-INF-OB1,NP-OB1,N,potential
ID,30_lucy_bnc_b41

(4.31)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,MD;~cat_Vi,could
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,VB;~Tng,see
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,NP-DOB1,D,the
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,NP-DOB1,N,blood
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,IP-PPL-OB1,VAG;~Ipr,running
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,IP-PPL-OB1,PP-CLR-DIR,P-ROLE,down
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,IP-PPL-OB1,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,NP-GENV,PRO;_genm_,his
IP-MAT,IP-INF-CAT,IP-PPL-OB1,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,N,chest
ID,132_susanne_n04

(4.32)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,VBP;~Tn.pr,leave
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,PRO;_provisional_,it
IP-MAT,PP-CLR,P-ROLE,to
IP-MAT,PP-CLR,NP,PRO,you
IP-MAT,PP-CLR,NP,PUNC,<comma>
IP-MAT,PP-CLR,NP,PRN,NP,NPR,Madam
IP-MAT,PP-CLR,NP,PRN,NP,NPR;@2,Deputy
IP-MAT,PP-CLR,NP,PRN,NP,NPR,Speaker
IP-MAT,PUNC,<comma>
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,TO,to
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,VB;~Tw,decide
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,CP-QUE-OB1,IP-SUB,NP-OB1,WPRO,which
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,CP-QUE-OB1,IP-SUB,NP-OB1,PP,P-ROLE,of
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,CP-QUE-OB1,IP-SUB,NP-OB1,PP,NP,D,those
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,CP-QUE-OB1,IP-SUB,NP-OB1,PP,NP,NS,traits
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,CP-QUE-OB1,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,CP-QUE-OB1,IP-SUB,VBP;~Tn,share
ID,9_a_hedgehog

(4.33)

ILYR,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
ILYR,VBD;~Cn.a,found
ILYR,NP-OB1,PRO;_provisional_,it
ILYR,ADJP-PRD,ADJ,strange
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,C,that
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,NLYR,CONJ,neither
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,NLYR,NP,PRO,I
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,NLYR,CONJP,CONJ,nor
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,NLYR,CONJP,NP,D,the
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,NLYR,CONJP,NP,N,day
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,VBD;~Ipr,seemed
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,PP-CLR-MNR,P-ROLE,in
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,PP-CLR-MNR,NP,D,a
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,PP-CLR-MNR,NP,ADJP,ADJ,mourning
ILYR,CP-THT-NOB1,IP-SUB,PP-CLR-MNR,NP,N,mood
ID,79_a_joyce_1914

(4.34)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,VBP;~Cn.a,find
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,D;_nphd_,this
IP-MAT,ADJP-PRD,ADJ,difficult
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,NP-LGS,*
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,TO,to
IP-MAT,IP-INF-NOB1,VB,believe
ID,9_lucy_student_e12

4.3.2.2    Indirect object

Table 4.40: Extension tag for indirect object function

An indirect object occurs after ditransitive verbs such as GIVE and TELL, and comes before the direct object. It conforms to the other criteria for objects, including the formation of passives.

    While rare, it is possible for the indirect object to be the only object present in the clause, as in (4.35).

(4.35)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,D;_nphd_,that
IP-MAT,BEP;~equ_Vw,<apos>s
IP-MAT,CP-QUE-PRD2,IP-SUB,ADVP-CNT,WADV,why
IP-MAT,CP-QUE-PRD2,IP-SUB,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,CP-QUE-PRD2,IP-SUB,VBD;~Dn.*,asked
IP-MAT,CP-QUE-PRD2,IP-SUB,NP-OB2,PRO,you
ID,300_christine_t16

The indirect object function can also occur with preposition phrases that are selected by a verb with [Dn.pr] code, discussed in chapter 7.

4.3.2.3    Closely related element

Table 4.41: Tag extension for closely related element

The closely related function of Table 4.41 occurs only with preposition phrases that have a verb selected function. When we look at verb codes with objects in chapter 7, we will find that verbs selecting PP-CLR involve a code with pr, e.g., [Ipr], [Tn.pr], etc.

4.3.3    Predicative

Table 4.42: Extension tags related to predicative functions

A predicative can only occur as a clause element when selected by the verb. A predicative typically follows the verb and (if one is present) the direct object. All of the phrase types considered in chapter 3 are able to function as predicatives: noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, and preposition phrase. This behaviour is in contrast to objects, which cannot be adjective phrases.

    There are two types of predicative: the subject predicative and the object predicative. In the annotation, having 2 as part of the predicative tag, to give -PRD2, marks a subject predicative. Absence of 2, signals an object predicative. Both types of predicative have the semantic role of characterising a preceding noun phrase:

• a subject predicative adds more information about the subject, as seen with (4.36)
• an object predicative does the same for its direct object, as seen with (4.37)

(4.36)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,D,The
IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,N,Skipjack
IP-MAT,VBD;~Ln,became
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,D,the
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,ADJP,ADJS,fastest
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,N,submarine
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,IP-PPL,NP-LGS,*
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,IP-PPL,ADVP-TMP,ADV,ever
IP-MAT,NP-PRD2,IP-PPL,VVN;~Tn,built
ID,46_susanne_a20

(4.37)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,VBP;~Cn.a,find
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,D;_nphd_,this
IP-MAT,ADJP-PRD,ADVP,ADV,very
IP-MAT,ADJP-PRD,ADJ,interesting
ID,14_a_ted_talk_11

4.3.4    Adverbials

An adverbial is a phrase that is used to modify a verb or clause. Adverbials need to be given functional information in the annotation. Following the coding system for adverbial function from the SUSANNE Corpus and Analytic Scheme (Sampson 1995), the full range of extensions for marking adverbial functions is given in Table 4.43.

Table 4.43: The full range of tag extensions for marking adverbial functions

    It is typical for adverb phrases to be used as adverbials, but also many other types of phrases can be used in this way, including noun phrases, preposition phrases, and subordinate clauses.

    In (4.38), the preposition phrases in the face and with a pistol, the noun phrase last night, and the subordinate clause after robbing him of $18 are all adverbials that modify struck.

(4.38)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,D,A
IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,N,thug
IP-MAT,VBD;~Tn.pr,struck
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,D,a
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,N,cab
IP-MAT,NP-OB1,N;@3,driver
IP-MAT,PP-LOC,P-ROLE,in
IP-MAT,PP-LOC,NP,D,the
IP-MAT,PP-LOC,NP,N,face
IP-MAT,PP-MNR,P-ROLE,with
IP-MAT,PP-MNR,NP,D,a
IP-MAT,PP-MNR,NP,N,pistol
IP-MAT,NP-TMP,ADJP,ADJ,last
IP-MAT,NP-TMP,N,night
IP-MAT,PP-SCON-TMP,P-CONN,after
IP-MAT,PP-SCON-TMP,IP-PPL,VAG;~Tn.pr,robbing
IP-MAT,PP-SCON-TMP,IP-PPL,NP-OB1,PRO,him
ID,10_susanne_a19

    The adverbials of (4.38) are all optional elements of clause structure. But also, on a verb specific basis, adverbials may have clause presence as required elements when expressing a particular semantic relation that the verb selects, as seen with the grammatical codes of [Ipr], [In/pr], [Tn.pr], and [Dn.pr] discussed in chapter 7.

    With the exception of -DIR, the adverbial functions of Table 4.43 typically mark phrases that are not selected by the verb. Even when not selected by the verb, adverbials still need to make a meaning contribution that is compatible with the meaning of the verb.

(4.39)

ILYR,PP-TMP,P-ROLE,For
ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,D,a
ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,N,time
ILYR,PUNC,<comma>
ILYR,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
ILYR,ADVP-TMP,ADV,still
ILYR,VBD;~I,worked
ILYR,NP-TMP,D,a
ILYR,NP-TMP,N,couple
ILYR,NP-TMP,PP,P-ROLE,of
ILYR,NP-TMP,PP,NP,NS,afternoons
ILYR,NP-MNR,N,supply
ILYR,NP-MNR,N;@2,teaching
ILYR,PP-LOC,P-ROLE,at
ILYR,PP-LOC,NP,NPR,Perins
ID,40_a_alresford

(4.40)

ILYR,NP-SBJ,D,the
ILYR,NP-SBJ,ADJP,ADJ,visual
ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,aspect
ILYR,BEP;~Ln,is
ILYR,NP-PRD2,ADVP-MOD,ADV,much
ILYR,NP-PRD2,D,the
ILYR,NP-PRD2,ADJP,ADJ,same
ILYR,PUNC,<comma>
ILYR,PP-COM,ADVP-MOD,ADV,even
ILYR,PP-COM,P-ROLE,with
ILYR,PP-COM,NP,ADJP,ADJ,major
ILYR,PP-COM,NP,NS,changes
ID,94_a_alresford

(4.41)

ILYR,PP-TMP,P-ROLE,In
ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,D,the
ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,N,summer
ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,PP,P-ROLE,of
ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,PP,NP,NPR,1979
ILYR,PUNC,<comma>
ILYR,NP-SBJ,D,the
ILYR,NP-SBJ,NPR,ITV
ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,channel
ILYR,VBD;~I,disappeared
ILYR,PP-DIR,P-ROLE,from
ILYR,PP-DIR,NP,D,the
ILYR,PP-DIR,NP,ADJP,ADJ,national
ILYR,PP-DIR,NP,NS,screens
ILYR,PP-TMP,P-ROLE,for
ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,NS,months
ILYR,PP-CNT,P-ROLE,due_to
ILYR,PP-CNT,NP,ADJP,ADJ,industrial
ILYR,PP-CNT,NP,N,action
ID,87_a_alresford

(4.42)

ILYR,VB;~phr_Vp.pr,head
ILYR,RP,straight
ILYR,PP-CLR-DIR,P-ROLE,across
ILYR,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,D,the
ILYR,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,NS,swells
ILYR,PP-DIR,P-ROLE,for
ILYR,PP-DIR,NP,N,Antler
ID,116_susanne_n14

(4.43)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,HVP;~cat_Ve,<apos>ve
IP-MAT,IP-PPL-CAT,VVN;~Tn,watched
IP-MAT,IP-PPL-CAT,NP-OB1,PRO,them
IP-MAT,IP-PPL-CAT,PP-TMP,ADVP-MOD,ADV,all
IP-MAT,IP-PPL-CAT,PP-TMP,P-ROLE,through
IP-MAT,IP-PPL-CAT,PP-TMP,NP,D,the
IP-MAT,IP-PPL-CAT,PP-TMP,NP,N,week
ID,46_christine_t11

(4.44)

ILYR,VBD;~Ipr,went
ILYR,PP-DIR,P-ROLE,through
ILYR,PP-DIR,NP,D,the
ILYR,PP-DIR,NP,N,wood
ILYR,PP-CLR-DIR,P-ROLE,to
ILYR,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,NP-GENV,D,the
ILYR,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,NP-GENV,N,baker
ILYR,PP-CLR-DIR,NP,NP-GENV,GENM,<apos>s
ID,7_a_potter_1902

(4.45)

IP-ADV,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-ADV,VBP;~Ip,arrive
IP-ADV,ADVP-CLR-DIR,ADV,home
IP-ADV,PP-DIR,P-ROLE,from
IP-ADV,PP-DIR,NP,N,school
IP-ADV,PP-TMP,P-ROLE,in
IP-ADV,PP-TMP,NP,D,the
IP-ADV,PP-TMP,NP,N,evening
IP-ADV,PUNC,<comma>
IP-ADV,PP-TMP,P-ROLE,at
IP-ADV,PP-TMP,NP,ADVP,ADV,about
IP-ADV,PP-TMP,NP,NUM,four
IP-ADV,PP-TMP,NP,ADVP,ADV,o<apos>clock
ID,1_lucy_child_12_f37

4.4    Clause internal coordination

Table 4.44: Tag for clause internal layer

Coordination joins together two or more constituents which are outside of each other and of ‘equal status’. For example, content for three clauses become one clause through coordination in (4.46).

(4.46)

IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,Mr
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,NPR,G
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,BEP;~Ln,is
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,NP-PRD2,D,the
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,NP-PRD2,N,headmaster
IP-MAT,ILYR,PUNC,<comma>
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,Miss
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-SBJ,NPR,K
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,BEP;~Ln,is
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-PRD2,D,the
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-PRD2,N,deputy
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-PRD2,N;@3,head
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP;@4,CONJ,and
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP;@4,ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,Mrs
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP;@4,ILYR,NP-SBJ,NPR,V
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP;@4,ILYR,BEP;~Ln,is
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP;@4,ILYR,NP-PRD2,D,the
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP;@4,ILYR,NP-PRD2,N,school
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP;@4,ILYR,NP-PRD2,N;@3,secretary
IP-MAT,PUNC,.
ID,3_lucy_child_11_h11

The overall coordinated structure of (4.46) is gathered under a single ILYR (clause internal layer) projection with the external behaviour of a single clause. Each conjunct of the coordinated structure is an ILYR that is either:

(i)

the first conjunct followed by one or more CONJP sisters, or

(ii)

a conjunct that is directly under a CONJP.

    Coordinated structure can itself form the conjunct of larger coordinated structure. Such layered coordination is easiest to identify when different coordinators are used at each level, as in (4.47).

(4.47)

IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,Mrs
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,NPR,G
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,BED;~Ln,was
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,NP-PRD2,N,headmistress
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,PP-SCON-TMP,P-CONN,when
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,PP-SCON-TMP,IP-ADV,NP-SBJ,PRO,I
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,PP-SCON-TMP,IP-ADV,VBD;~I,came
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,CONJ,but
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,FS,NP-SBJ,PRO,she
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,FS,VBD,left
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,FS,META,#
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ADVP-TMP,ADVP,ADV,soon
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ADVP-TMP,ADV,after
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,IP-ADV,NP-SBJ,PRO,she
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,IP-ADV,VBD;~I,left
IP-MAT,ILYR,PUNC,<comma>
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,CONJ,and
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,D,a
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,ADJP,ADJ,new
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,headmistress
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,VBD;~I,came
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,PUNC,_*<comma>*_
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-SBJ,NP-GENV,PRO;_genm_,her
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-SBJ,N,name
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,BEP;~Ln,is
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-PRD2,N,Miss
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-PRD2,NPR,B
IP-MAT,PUNC,.
ID,4_lucy_child_11_h04

    Coordination can happen at different levels of clause structure. In (4.48) coordination occurs at the highest level of clause structure, so that the front placement of is (i.e. marking for an interrogative clause) is required for both conjuncts.

(4.48)

CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,ILYR,BEP;~Ln,is
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,ILYR,NP-SBJ,PRO,he
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,ILYR,NP-PRD2,D,a
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,ILYR,NP-PRD2,N,manager
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,CONJP,CONJ,or
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,BEP;~La,is
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-SBJ,PRO,he
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ADJP-PRD2,ADJ,unemployed
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,PP-TMP,P-ROLE,at
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,D,the
CP-QUE-MAT,IP-SUB,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,PP-TMP,NP,N,moment
CP-QUE-MAT,PUNC,?
ID,497_christine_t14

In (4.49) the coordination is within the syntactic scope of the subject.

(4.49)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,PRO,They
IP-MAT,ILYR,NEG,not
IP-MAT,ILYR,ADVP-MOD,ADV,only
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,VBP,look
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-CLR,P-ROLE,at
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-CLR,NP,D,the
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-CLR,NP,N,inside
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-CLR,NP,PP,P-ROLE,of
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-CLR,NP,PP,NP,D,the
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-CLR,NP,PP,NP,N,apartment
IP-MAT,ILYR,PUNC,<comma>
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,CONJ,but
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ADVP-MOD,ADV,also
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,VBP,look
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,PP-CLR,P-ROLE,at
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,PP-CLR,NP,D,the
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,PP-CLR,NP,NS,surroundings
ID,14_lucy_student_e40

In (4.50) we can see coordination occurring within the clause at two distinct levels: (i) at a level that is just under the syntactic scope of the overall subject, and (ii) at a level that is under the syntactic scope of an object.

(4.50)

IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,D,the
IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,NUM,fourth
IP-MAT,NP-SBJ,N,year
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,VBP;~Ip,go
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,ADVP-CLR-DIR,RP,out
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-LOC,P-ROLE,on_to
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-LOC,NP,D,the
IP-MAT,ILYR,ILYR,PP-LOC,NP,N,field
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,CONJ,and
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,ILYR,VBP;~Tn,practise
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,CONJ,or
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,VBP;~Tn,play
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-OB1,NLYR,NP,N,cricket
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-OB1,NLYR,CONJP,CONJ,or
IP-MAT,ILYR,CONJP,ILYR,NP-OB1,NLYR,CONJP,NP,NS,rounders
ID,3_lucy_child_10_k12