Chapter 6 Catenative verbs and passive voice

6.1 Introduction

A clause might contain a sequence of verbs. This chapter is concerned with verbs of a verb sequence that are prior to the last verb. These prior verbs are called CATENATIVE VERBS. The last verb of a verb sequence, called the MAIN VERB, is the focus of chapter 7.

With annotation, a catenative verb occurs at a level of clause structure alongside a clause layer with the -CAT extension that essentially acts as a clasue internal layer. This clause internal layer is the selected complement of the catenative verb.

Full tags for -CAT layers are listed in Table 6.57. The full tag for a -CAT layer is determined by the form of the directly contained verb.

`IP-INF-CAT`	layer with infinitive verb introduced by a catenative verb
`IP-PPL-CAT`	layer with participle verb introduced by a catenative verb

Table 6.57: Tags for marking a layer selected as the complement of a catenative verb

The annotation marks each catenative verb with a catenative verb code, and sections 6.2 to 6.8 will provide examples to illustrate all of the possible codes. Codes differ because they indicate the form of the -CAT marked complement following Table 6.58.

t	non-finite clause (to-infinitive) (`IP-INF-CAT` with to tagged `TO` and verb tagged `VB`)
i	non-finite clause (bare infinitive) (`IP-INF-CAT` with verb tagged `VB` but no `TO` tagged word)
e	participial clause ({ed}/{en} form) (`IP-PPL-CAT` with verb tagged `VVN`)
g	participial clause ({ing} form) (`IP-PPL-CAT` with verb tagged `VAG`)

Table 6.58: Lower case letters e, g, t, and i

A complete verb code is reached when cat_V is followed by a lower case letter from Table 6.58. There are also codes with an added lowercase ‘p’ to indicate the presence of an adverb particle selected by the verb in addition to the -CAT marked complement. The list of catenative codes is as follows:

[cat_Vt] (section 6.2)
[cat_Vp.t] (section 6.3)
[cat_Vi] (section 6.4)
[cat_Ve_passive_] (section 6.5)
[cat_Ve] (section 6.6)
[cat_Vg] (section 6.7)
[cat_Vp.g] (section 6.8)
[cat_Vg_passive_] (section 6.10.2)

Coordination with the complements of catenative verbs is discussed in section 6.9.

Passive voice is discussed in section 6.10. Passive voice is most easily recognised when arising with an instance of BE that is a catenative [cat_Ve] verb, or some other catenative [cat_Ve] verb that is not HAVE, such as GET.

Finally, section 6.11 introduces some specialised verb codes from Hornby (1975) that select passive complements.

6.2 [cat_Vt]

[cat_Vt] is the code to mark a catenative verb with an IP-INF-CAT complement that directly contains an infinitive verb with to.

(6.1): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (D A) (N drawing)
    (PP (P-ROLE of)
      (NP (D the) (N structure))))
  (BEP;~cat_Vt is)
  (IP-INF-CAT (TO to) (BE;~cat_Ve_passive_ be)
    (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn found)
      (PP-NIM-LOC (P-ROLE in)
        (NP (N reference) (NUM 6))))))

(6.2): (ILYR
  (NP-SBJ (D;_nphd_ This))
  (MD;~cat_Vi may)
  (IP-INF-CAT (VB;~cat_Vt appear)
    (IP-INF-CAT (TO to) (BE;~cat_Vg be)
      (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG;~Tn missing)
        (NP-OB1 (D the) (N point))))))

(6.3): (IP-SUB
  (NP-SBJ (PRO;_expletive_ it))
  (BED;~cat_Vg was)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG;~cat_Vt going)
    (IP-INF-CAT (TO to) (BE;~Ln be)
      (NP-PRD2 (D a)
        (ADJP
          (ADVP (ADV very))
          (ADJ special))
        (N day)))))

(6.4): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
  (BEP;~cat_Vg <apos>re)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG;~cat_Vt gon)
    (IP-INF-CAT (TO na) (HV;~cat_Vt have)
      (IP-INF-CAT (TO to) (VB;~Tn share)
        (NP-OB1 (PRO them))))))

6.3 [cat_Vp.t]

[cat_Vp.t] is the code to mark a catenative phrasal verb with particle and an IP-INF-CAT complement that directly contains an infinitive verb with to. In (6.5), turned has out as its required particle to form a phrasal verb with to be excellent as the IP-INF-CAT complement.

(6.5): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (D The) (N arrangement))
  (VBD;~cat_Vp.t turned)
  (RP out)
  (IP-INF-CAT (TO to) (BE;~La be)
    (ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ excellent))))

6.4 [cat_Vi]

[cat_Vi] is the code to mark a catenative verb with an IP-INF-CAT complement that directly contains a bare infinitive verb.

(6.6): (IP-MAT (DOP do) (NEG;_clitic_ n<apos>t)
  (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
  (VB;~cat_Vi dare)
  (IP-INF-CAT (VB talk)
    (PP-CLR (P-ROLE to)
      (NP (PRO me)))
    (PP-NIM-MNR (P-ROLE like)
      (NP (D;_nphd_ that)))))

6.5 [cat_Ve_passive_]

[cat_Ve_passive_] is the code to mark a catenative verb with an IP-PPL-CAT complement that directly contains a passive past participle ({ed}/{en}) verb form. Example (6.7) illustrates the [cat_Ve_passive_] verb appeared with selection of an IP-PPL-CAT complement with past participle struck as a passive verb.

(6.7): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ
    (NLYR
      (NLYR (NS engages))
      (PUNC ,)
      (CONJP
        (NLYR (NS cooks)))
      (PUNC ,)
      (CONJP
        (NLYR (NS voyageurs)))))
  (VBD;~cat_Ve_passive_ appeared)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Cn.a struck)
    (ADJP-PRD (ADJ dumb))))

Example (6.8) illustrates the [cat_Ve_passive_] verb grown with selection of an IP-PPL-CAT complement with past participle accustomed as a passive verb.

(6.8): (NP (NS eyes)
  (IP-REL
    (NP-SBJ (RPRO that))
    (HVD;~cat_Ve had)
    (IP-PPL-CAT (VVN;~cat_Ve_passive_ grown)
      (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn.pr accustomed)
        (PP-CLR (P-ROLE to)
          (NP (D the) (N absence)
            (PP (P-ROLE of)
              (NP (N light)))))))))

The [cat_Ve_passive_] verbs appeared of (6.7) and grown of (6.8) bring about a passive interpretation for the past participle ({ed}/{en}) verb of their -CAT complement. Most typically, it is [cat_Ve_passive_] BE that is used to create the environment for a passive -CAT complement to occur, discussed in section 6.10 below. Also, [cat_Ve_passive_] GET is another notable trigger for a passive.

6.6 [cat_Ve] (Perfect construction)

Catenative [cat_Ve] HAVE is used to form the perfect construction. The perfect tense is formed by:

turning the verb into its past participle inflection
adding a form of the verb HAVE before it

This places multiple verbs in sequence, giving an IP-PPL-CAT layer in the annotation, as seen in (6.9).

(6.9): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (N Mr<dot>) (NPR Yamada))
  (HVP;~cat_Ve has)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VVN;~Ipr gone)
    (PP-CLR-DIR (P-ROLE to)
      (NP (NPR Tokyo)))))

The perfect form of a verb generally calls attention to the consequences of a prior event; for example, (6.9) implies that Mr. Yamada is still away, in contrast with (6.10).

(6.10): Mr. Yamada went to Tokyo

6.7 [cat_Vg]

[cat_Vg] is the code to mark a catenative verb with an IP-PPL-CAT complement that directly contains a present participial ({ing}) verb form.

(6.11): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO He))
  (VBD;~cat_Vg kept)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG;~I going)))

6.7.1 Progressive construction

The progressive (also known as the ‘continuous’) form of a verb generally describes events in progress. It is formed by combining a verb's present participle ({ing}) verb form (e.g., watching) with an instance of BE that is a catenative [cat_Vg] verb, e.g., was watching in (6.12).

(6.12): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
  (BED;~cat_Vg was)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG watching)
    (NP-OB1 (D the) (NS fire_<hyphen>_engines))))

The progressive construction can be introduced by the perfect construction (see section 6.6), as with been watching in (6.13).

(6.13): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ;{BILL} (NPR Bill))
  (HVP;~cat_Ve has)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (BEN;~cat_Vg been)
    (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG watching)
      (NP-OB1
        (ADJP (ADJ little))
        (NPR Alice))))
  (PP-SCON-TMP
    (ADVP-MOD (ADV ever))
    (P-CONN since)
    (IP-ADV
      (NP-SBJ;{MARY} (NPR Mary))
      (VBD left))))

The progressive construction can be used to introduce the passive construction (see section 6.10), as with is getting in (6.14).

(6.14): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (NPR Britain))
  (BEP;~cat_Vg is)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG;~cat_Ve_passive_ getting)
    (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN left)
      (ADVP-NIM-LOC (ADV behind)))))

The progressive construction can be introduced by the perfect construction and introduce the passive construction, as with been being in (6.15).

(6.15): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO He))
  (MD;~cat_Vi might)
  (IP-INF-CAT (HV;~cat_Ve have)
    (IP-PPL-CAT (BEN;~cat_Vg been)
      (IP-PPL-CAT (BAG;~cat_Ve_passive_ being)
        (IP-PPL-CAT (VVN;~Tn questioned)
          (PP-LGS (P-ROLE by)
            (NP (D the) (NS police))))))))

6.8 [cat_Vp.g]

[cat_Vp.g] is the code to mark a catenative phrasal verb with required particle and an IP-PPL-CAT complement that directly contains a present participial ({ing}) verb form. In (6.16), keep has on as its required particle to form a phrasal verb with drinking as the IP-PPL-CAT complement.

(6.16): (PP-SCON-CNT-CND (P-CONN if)
  (IP-ADV
    (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
    (VBP;~cat_Vp.g keep)
    (RP on)
    (IP-PPL-CAT (VAG drinking))))

6.9 Coordination with the complements of catenative verbs

In addition to matching catenative verb code commitments, having -CAT layers provides the structural isolation needed for coordination, which is possible when there are clause internal layers. For example, there are multiple -CAT layers in (6.17), with coordination occurring with the higher layer.

(6.17): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (NS Phones))
  (BED;~cat_Vg were)
  (IP-PPL-CAT
    (ILYR
      (ILYR (BAG;~cat_Ve_passive_ being)
        (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn tapped)))
      (CONJP (CONJ and)
        (ILYR (VAG;~Ipr going)
          (PP-CLR (P-ROLE out_of)
            (NP (N action))))))))

6.10 Passive voice

`NP-LGS`	logical subject noun phrase
`PP-LGS`	logical subject preposition phrase

Table 6.59: Tags for marking a logical subject

The ACTIVE VOICE is the basic, unmarked form of the clause.

The PASSIVE VOICE is the more marked form of the clause in which the -SBJ corresponds in meaning to an -OB1 or -OB2 (or very occasionally a -PRD) of a corresponding active clause.

Sentence (6.18) is the passive of Her boyfriend gave her a new outfit. A passive is recognisable from:

the past participle form gave
a normal object (her) turned into the subject (She)
the normal subject (her boyfriend) turned into an optional preposition phrase with by
the catenative [cat_Ve] verb BE, or some other catenative [cat_Ve] verb, such as GET.

(6.18): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO She))
  (BED;~cat_Ve_passive_ was)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VVN;~Dn.n given)
    (NP-OB1 (D a)
      (ADJP (ADJ new))
      (N outfit))
    (PP-LGS (P-ROLE by)
      (NP
        (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ her))
        (N boyfriend)))))

(6.19): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO She))
  (HVP;~cat_Ve has)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VVN;~Dn.pr given)
    (NP-OB1 (D a)
      (ADJP (ADJ new))
      (N outfit))
    (PP-OB2 (P-ROLE to)
      (NP
        (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ her))
        (N boyfriend)))))

GET can be used in place of BE as a [cat_Ve] verb to form passives.

(6.20): (ILYR
  (NP-SBJ (NPR ARX))
  (VBD;~cat_Ve_passive_ got)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn cancelled)
    (NP-NIM-TMP (D the)
      (ADJP (ADJ next))
      (N day))))

6.10.1 Passives with adverbial clauses

(6.21): (IP-MAT
  (PP-SCON-CNT
    (IP-PPL2 (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn Seated)
      (PP-NIM-LOC (P-ROLE beside)
        (NP (NPR Alastair)))))
  (PUNC ,)
  (PP-SCON-CNT
    (IP-PPL2 (VVN;~Tn lulled)
      (PP-LGS (P-ROLE by)
        (NP (D the)
          (ADJP (ADJ uncanny))
          (N silence)
          (PP (P-ROLE of)
            (NP
              (ADJP (ADJ supersonic))
              (N flight)))))))
  (PUNC ,)
  (NP-SBJ (NPR Geoffrey))
  (MD;~cat_Vi could)
  (IP-INF-CAT (VB;~Cn.pr imagine)))

6.10.2 [cat_Vg_passive_] Concealed passives

After NEED and WANT with [cat_Vg_passive_] code the IP-PPL-CAT complement with {ing} participle has a passive meaning.

(6.22): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ
    (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ His))
    (NS wounds))
  (VBP;~cat_Vg_passive_ need)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VAG;~Tn dressing)
    (ADVP-NIM-TMP (ADV now))))

(6.23): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO he))
  (VBP;~cat_Vg_passive_ wants)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VAG;~Tn loving)))

(6.24): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
  (VBP;~cat_Vg_passive_ want)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VAG;~Ipr looking)
    (PP-CLR-DIR (P-ROLE at))))

6.10.3 Other cases with -LGS

In (6.25) -NSBJ occurs in a clause together with a derived subject, marked -SBJ and so not distinguished independently of the construction, in a construction that is also mentioned in section 9.9.

(6.25): (ILYR
  (NP-SBJ (D The) (N breaststroke))
  (BEP;~La is)
  (ADJP-PRD2
    (ADVP (ADV very))
    (ADJ hard))
  (IP-INF-NSBJ (NP-LGS *) (TO to) (VB;~Tn.pr explain)
    (PP-NIM-MNR (P-ROLE in)
      (NP (NS words)))))

6.10.4 Adjectival passives

(6.26): (ILYR
  (ILYR
    (NP-SBJ
      (ADJP (ADJR more))
      (PP (P-ROLE of)
        (NP (D the) (N therapy) (N group))))
    (BED;~La were)
    (ADJP-PRD2 (ADJ married)))
  (PUNC ,)
  (CONJP (CONJ and)
    (ILYR
      (NP-SBJ
        (ADJP (ADJ married))
        (NS people)
        (PP (P-ROLE with)
          (NP (N cancer))))
      (BEP;~cat_Ve_passive_ are)
      (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Cn.t known)
        (IP-INF-OB1 (TO to) (VB;~I survive)
          (ADVP-NIM-TMP (ADVR longer)))))))

(6.27): (ILYR
  (NP-NIM-TMP (D the) (NUM next) (N day))
  (NP-SBJ (PRO they))
  (BED;~cat_Ve_passive_ were)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn married)))

6.11 VP24 codes

VP24 codes from Hornby (1975) mark main verbs that are followed by a noun phrase + an IP-PPL-PRD that directly contains a past participle ({ed}/{en}) verb form. VP24 codes are subdivided, as a specific use of GET and all instances of HAVE need separate treatment.

6.11.1 [VP24A]

[VP24A] is the code when the verb is not GET with the [VP24C] meaning or HAVE.

(6.28): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
  (VBD;~VP24A found)
  (NP-OB1 (NPR Eliza))
  (IP-PPL-PRD (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn seated)
    (PP-NIM-LOC (P-ROLE in)
      (NP
        (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ his))
        (N arm_<hyphen>_chair)))))

(6.29): (ILYR
  (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
  (HVP;~cat_Ve have)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VVN;~VP24A seen)
    (NP-OB1 (Q;_nphd_ both)
      (NLYR (D;_nphd_ these)))
    (IP-PPL-PRD (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn played))))

(6.30): (IP-MAT (HVP;~cat_Ve has)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VVN;~VP24A made)
    (NP-OB1 (PRO;_provisional_ it))
    (IP-PPL-PRD (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn known))
    (CP-THT-NOB1
      (IP-SUB
        (NP-SBJ (PRO he))
        (BEP;~cat_Ve_passive_ is)
        (IP-PPL-CAT (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn.pr concerned)
          (PP-CLR (P-ROLE about)
            (NP (D the) (N case))))))))

6.11.2 [VP24B]

[VP24B] is the code when the main verb is HAVE used to indicate what the subject of the sentence experiences, undergoes, or suffers, as in (6.31). [VP24B] also marks HAVE used to indicate what is held or possessed, as in (6.32).

(6.31): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO They))
  (ADVP-NIM-TMP (ADV always))
  (VBP;~Tt need)
  (IP-INF-OB1 (TO to) (HV;~VP24B have)
    (NP-OB1 (NS things))
    (IP-PPL-PRD (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn explained))))

(6.32): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
  (HVP;~cat_Ve have)
  (IP-PPL-CAT
    (ADVP-NIM-MOD (ADV just))
    (HVN;~VP24B had)
    (NP-OB1 (D a)
      (ADJP (ADJ new))
      (N bicycle))
    (IP-PPL-PRD (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn bought))))

6.11.3 [VP24C]

[VP24C] is the code when the main verb is HAVE or GET meaning ‘cause to be’.

(6.33): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO We))
  (HVD;~VP24C had)
  (NP-OB1 (D the) (N place))
  (IP-PPL-PRD (NP-LGS *) (VVN crammed)
    (ADVP-NIM-MNR (ADV full))))

(6.34): (IP-MAT
  (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
  (HVP;~cat_Ve <apos>s)
  (IP-PPL-CAT (VVN;~VP24C got)
    (NP-OB1
      (NP-GENV (PRO;_genm_ her))
      (N hair))
    (IP-PPL-PRD (NP-LGS *) (VVN;~Tn cut))))